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‘Old age is a shipwreck’ refers to a stigma of an historical view of the inevitable, universal deterioration attributed to age (Lemme, 1995). It contrasts sharply with the more recent use of a butterfly as a metaphor to describe aging as having continu...  

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'Old age is a shipwreck' refers to a stigma of an historical view of the inevitable, universal deterioration attributed to age (Lemme, 1995). It contrasts sharply with the more recent use of a butterfly as a metaphor to describe aging as having continued potential (Perlmutter, 1988). The concept of cognitive development may have arisen as a result of the convergence of two major perspectives in psychology; cognitive psychology and life-span development. To begin to understand the causes of cognitive change, it is empirical to investigate the four major areas of cognition; intelligence, memory, creativity and information processing, and then compare and contrast them across the three stages of adulthood; early, middle and late. It is also important to consider different stages of development, research designs and the physiological changes of a human being to be able to completely understand the causes of either the growth or decline of cognition as...

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