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Covalent bonding is an intermolecular form of chemical bonding characterized by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two components, producing a mutual attraction that holds the resultant molecule together. Atoms tend to share electrons in such a way that their outer electron shells are filled - this is referred to as electron configuration. Such bonds are always stronger than the intermolecular hydrogen bond and similar in strength to or stronger than the ionic bond. In contrast to the ionic and metallic bond, the covalent bond is directional, i.e. the bond angles have a great impact on the strength of the bond. Because of the directional character of the bond, covalently bound materials are more difficult to deform than metals. The cause of the directionality is the form of the s, p, d, and f orbitals. In organic chemistry, the directionality of the bonding is often described by...

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